Nuclear Energy – Definition, Trends and India’s Strategic Advancements

Relevance to the UPSC –

Nuclear energy is integral to the UPSC syllabus, intersecting with multiple topics:

• General Science and Technology (Prelims and Mains): Focuses on nuclear technology principles and advancements.
• Economic Development (Mains): Discusses nuclear energy’s role in sustainable growth and reducing fossil fuel dependency.
• Environment and Ecology (Prelims and Mains): Analyzes its contributions to carbon emission reduction and climate change mitigation.
• Energy Security (Mains): Evaluates nuclear power in India’s energy strategy.
• International Relations (Mains): Considers global nuclear agreements and their impact on non-proliferation.
• Governance (Mains): Reviews regulatory frameworks and safety protocols in the nuclear sector.

Why in the News?

Nuclear energy is a focal topic in India due to its integration into the nation’s strategy to address escalating energy demands and climate commitments. India aims to triple its nuclear capacity by 2032, highlighting significant expansions and innovations in its nuclear sector. This includes enhancing international collaborations for advanced technology and fuel supplies, particularly with countries like Russia, France, and the USA. India is also exploring Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) for their adaptability and safety, and has strengthened its safety regulations to boost public confidence and ensure the secure operation of its nuclear facilities.

What is Nuclear Energy?

• It is the energy in the nucleus or core of an Atom.
• What are Nucleus and Atom?
  • Atoms are tiny matters that make up all the matters of the universe
  • Energy holds the dense nucleus together and it contains a huge amount of Power
  • Nuclear energy can be used to generate electricity, but first, it needs to be released from the Atom.
• Two kinds of Atomic reactions create Nuclear Energy
• Nuclear fission is when atoms are split apart to produce energy. In a nuclear power plant, pellets of uranium are used as fuel. When these pellets are hit by fast-moving neutrons, the uranium atoms split. This splitting releases a huge amount of energy and more neutrons. These extra neutrons then cause more uranium atoms to split, creating a chain reaction that keeps going. The energy from this reaction heats water, turning it into steam. The steam spins turbines, which then power a generator to produce electricity.
• Benefits and problems –
  • The energy produced is without GHG
  • The main problem associated with it is nuclear waste, which is toxic and remains radioactive for 1000 years. States usually keep the responsibility of disposal to avoid any future health risks.

Description – Nuclear Fission

• Fusion –
  • Nuclear fusion is a process where two light atomic nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus, releasing a lot of energy. This happens in a special state of matter called plasma, which is like a very hot, charged gas. Fusion is what powers the sun and all other stars. For fusion to occur, the atomic nuclei need extremely high temperatures (about ten million degrees Celsius) to smash together and overcome their natural repulsion. In the sun, the immense pressure from its gravity helps keep the nuclei close enough to fuse.
• Benefits and Progress of Fusion:
  • More Energy: Fusion can produce four times more energy from the same amount of fuel compared to nuclear fission, and millions of times more than burning oil or coal.
  • Abundant Fuel: Fusion uses deuterium and tritium, forms of hydrogen that are plentiful — deuterium can be extracted from seawater, and tritium can be made from lithium.
  • Safety: Fusion reactors are designed to be safe; there’s no risk of a meltdown because the fusion process stops naturally if conditions aren’t perfect.
  • Why it is still a dream?
    • A simple reason why fusion has not yet been achieved for practical energy production is that it is extremely difficult to create and maintain the conditions necessary for fusion. Specifically, achieving and sustaining the very high temperatures and pressures needed for fusion to occur is technically challenging and requires advanced materials and technology that are still under development.

Description – Nuclear Fusion

What is Nuclear Fuel Cycle ? – The nuclear fuel cycle involves mining uranium, making reactor fuel, using it to produce electricity, and safely handling the used fuel afterward.

Recent advances in the domain –

ITER(International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) 

• It’s an international, large-scale scientific collaboration intended to prove the viability of fusion as an energy source.
• It’s a collaboration of 35 nations launched in 1985.
• It is located in France.

Tokamak

• A tokamak is a device designed to harness nuclear fusion.
• The first Tokamak, T-1 began operation in Russia in 1958 and the subsequent advances led to the construction of the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor at Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory and the Joint European Torus in England, both have which achieved record fusion power in the 1990s.

China’s ‘Artificial Sun’ EAST –

• The Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak(EAST) reactor is an advanced nuclear fusion experimental research device.
• Its purpose is to replicate the process of nuclear fusion, which is the same reaction that powers the sun.

India’s Tokamak initiatives –

• India is actively involved in tokamak research, both participating in the ITER project and developing indigenous capabilities.
• The Institute for Plasma Research (IPR) in Gandhinagar runs several operational tokamaks like Aditya and SST-1 for fusion research.
• Most ambitiously, IPR is planning the IN-SPARC demonstration reactor to achieve net energy gain from fusion by 2030.

Small Modular Reactors(SMRs)

• Small modular reactors (SMRs) are advanced nuclear reactors that have a power capacity of up to 300 MW(e) per unit, which is about one-third of the generating capacity of traditional nuclear power reactors. Given their smaller footprint, SMRs can be sited in locations not suitable for larger nuclear power plants. Both public and private institutions are actively participating in efforts to bring SMR technology to fruition within this decade. Russia’s Akademik Lomonosov, the world’s first floating nuclear power plant that began commercial operation in May 2020, is producing energy from two 35 MW(e) SMRs. Other SMRs are under construction or in the licensing stage in Argentina, Canada, China, Russia, South Korea, and the United States of America.

Key drivers of Nuclear Energy-

1. Energy Security and Reliability
   • Stable Energy Supply: Nuclear power plants operate at a high capacity factor, typically over 90%, meaning they can produce electricity more consistently than other energy sources. For example, the Palo Verde Nuclear Generating Station in Arizona, USA, is the largest nuclear power plant in the country and provides electricity consistently throughout the year.
   • High Energy Density: The energy density of uranium, which is the most commonly used material in nuclear fission, is significantly higher than fossil fuels. One kilogram of uranium can produce as much energy as several thousand kilograms of coal.
2. Climate Change and Environmental Concerns
   • Low Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Nuclear power plants, like the Olkiluoto plant in Finland, produce electricity with negligible direct carbon emissions, which is crucial for meeting global climate goals.
   • Complement to Renewables: In France, nuclear energy works in conjunction with renewable energy sources by providing a stable base-load power, ensuring that the overall energy system remains reliable even when solar and wind conditions are not favorable.
3. Technological Advancements
   • Advances in Reactor Technology: Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) are being developed and promoted for their safety and flexibility. The NuScale Power’s SMR design in the USA is an example where modular reactors can be built in factories and assembled onsite, reducing construction times and potentially costs.
   • Improved Fuel Efficiency and Waste Management: Technologies like the reprocessing and recycling of spent nuclear fuel, practiced in France, significantly reduce the amount of waste and make use of the energy potential in used fuel.
4. Policy and Regulatory Support
   • Government Incentives: The U.S. government has enacted legislation such as the Nuclear Energy Innovation Capabilities Act to support new nuclear technology development. Additionally, countries like Russia and China heavily invest in their nuclear sectors through government funding and supportive policies.
   • International Collaboration: The ITER project in France, an international nuclear fusion research and engineering megaproject, is an example of global cooperation aimed at making nuclear fusion a viable energy source.
5. Economic Factors
   • Competitive Energy Costs: In countries like the UAE, which recently started operations at the Barakah nuclear power plant, nuclear energy is seen as a cost-effective alternative to importing natural gas or oil.
   • Long-term Cost Stability: South Korea’s nuclear power sector offers relatively low-cost electricity production stability, reducing the impact of international fuel price fluctuations on electricity costs.
6. Sociopolitical Drivers
   • Energy Independence: Countries like India are aggressively pursuing nuclear energy with plans to increase their nuclear capacity to reduce their dependence on coal and imported oil.
   • Public Perception and Acceptance: Following the Fukushima accident, Japan faced significant public opposition to nuclear energy. However, recent shifts in policy and renewed government assurances on safety measures are slowly changing public opinion towards a more positive view, as seen with the restart of several reactors.
7. Industrial and Medical Applications
   • Non-Electric Applications: Russia uses nuclear technology not only for electricity but also for powering icebreaker ships, which are critical for navigating its northern Arctic routes.
   • Medical and Research Uses: The use of radioisotopes in medicine, such as technetium-99m for diagnostic imaging in healthcare facilities worldwide, showcases the critical role of nuclear technology beyond electricity generation.

Challenges –

 

1. Environmental and Health Risks

• Radioactive Waste: Nuclear energy produces high-level radioactive waste that remains hazardous for thousands of years. Safe disposal is a major challenge.
• Thermal Pollution: Water used for cooling nuclear reactors is released back into the environment at higher temperatures, potentially harming aquatic ecosystems.
• Accidental Releases: Despite stringent safety measures, the risk of accidents like Chernobyl and Fukushima persists, posing significant environmental and health risks.

2. Economic Challenges

• High Initial Costs: The construction of nuclear power plants requires substantial upfront investment, making it financially daunting compared to alternatives like natural gas or renewables.
• Cost Overruns and Delays: Nuclear projects often face delays and unexpected cost increases, complicating budgeting and planning.
• Market Competitiveness: Operating and maintenance costs, although relatively low, still struggle to compete with the falling costs of renewable energy sources like wind and solar.

3. Sociopolitical Issues

• Public Perception: Nuclear energy often faces public opposition due to concerns over safety, waste management, and the potential for catastrophic failures.
• Regulatory Hurdles: Obtaining the necessary approvals can be a long and complex process due to stringent and sometimes evolving regulatory standards.
• Nuclear Proliferation: There is always a risk that nuclear technology and materials can be diverted to develop nuclear weapons.

4. Operational Challenges

• Water Usage: Nuclear reactors require a large quantity of water for cooling, which can strain local water resources or conflict with other uses.
• Aging Infrastructure: Many existing nuclear plants are nearing the end of their originally designed lifespans, raising issues about whether to refurbish, decommission, or replace them.
• Waste Management: The long-term management of nuclear waste remains unresolved in many countries, with interim storage solutions becoming prolonged de facto disposal methods.

5. Sustainability and Innovation Hurdles

• Inflexibility: Nuclear plants are typically designed for steady, continuous operation and are not as flexible as other energy sources in adjusting output in response to fluctuating demand.
• Barriers to Innovation: Although there are innovative designs like Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) and advanced reactors, transitioning from prototype to widespread commercial deployment faces significant technical, regulatory, and financial challenges.

Important treatise on Nuclear

India’s Nuclear Energy Programme

Evolution

• Timeline of Nuclear Energy Development in India
• 1948:
  • Establishment of the Atomic Energy Commission: Formed to create policies for atomic energy development in India.
  • Passage of the Atomic Energy Act: Parliament enacts legislation to promote atomic energy for peaceful purposes.
• 1954:
  • Creation of the Department of Atomic Energy: Dr. Homi Bhabha appointed as Secretary to implement the Commission’s policies.
• 1969:
  • Start of Commercial Nuclear Power Program: Tarapur Atomic Power Station 1&2 (TAPS 1&2), which are Boiling Water Reactors (BWR), begin operation.
• 1970s-1980s:
  • International Embargo: Following nuclear weapons tests, India faces restrictions on nuclear materials from other countries.
• Present Day:
  • Current Operations: Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) manages 24 reactors with a total capacity of 8,180 MWe.
• Future Plans:
  • 2023 Announcement: Government targets an increase in nuclear capacity to 22,480 MWe by 2031-32, aiming for nuclear to account for nearly 9% of India’s electricity by 2047.
  • Expansion Goals: NPCIL plans to add 18 more reactors, enhancing total capacity to meet future energy demands.

Important treatise on Nuclear

Three stage programme of India

Stage	Reactor Type	Fuel Used	Process	Outcome
1	Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs)	Natural Uranium	Natural uranium contains 0.7% Uranium-235, which undergoes fission. Uranium-238 (99.3%) is converted to Plutonium-239 through neutron capture and subsequent beta decay.	Energy production and generation of Plutonium-239 for use in the next stage.
2	Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs)	Mixed Oxide (MOX) fuel made from Uranium-238 and Plutonium-239	Plutonium-239 from spent PHWR fuel is used. Plutonium undergoes fission, and more Plutonium-239 is produced by breeding from Uranium-238.	Breeding more fuel than consumed; surplus Plutonium-239 supports more FBRs or next stage.
3	Advanced Heavy Water Reactors (planned)	Thorium-232 and Plutonium-239	Plutonium-239 is used to breed U-233 from Thorium-232. This stage leverages India’s large thorium reserves to establish a sustainable nuclear fuel cycle.	Energy production and creation of a self-sustaining cycle using thorium, minimizing waste.

Additional Details:

• Goal of the Program: Achieve self-sufficiency in nuclear energy using India’s indigenous nuclear resources, primarily focusing on utilizing its abundant thorium reserves.
• Benefits: Significantly reduces nuclear waste by reusing spent fuel across different stages, thereby extending the energy potential of the initial nuclear material and reducing the country’s dependence on imported uranium.
• Strategic Importance: Aligns with India’s long-term energy security goals and its commitment to developing clean energy sources.

Pointers to enhance Mains Answer – Global trend of Nuclear Energy

Future

Nuclear energy is set to play a crucial role in addressing the pressing challenges of energy security, climate change, and economic development. With IAEA projections indicating a 25% increase in nuclear capacity by 2050, countries worldwide are recognizing the value of this clean and reliable energy source. Over 440 reactors are currently operational globally, with significant expansions planned in nations like China, Russia, and India. India, aiming to triple its nuclear capacity by 2032, is at the forefront of adopting advanced nuclear technologies, including Small Modular Reactors (SMRs), which are safer and more adaptable.

These developments reflect a broader global trend towards newer, more efficient nuclear technologies that promise to bolster energy stability while supporting the transition away from fossil fuels. However, the nuclear sector faces challenges such as climate concerns, financing hurdles, and supply chain complexities. Efforts like the IAEA’s Nuclear Harmonization and Standardization Initiative aim to overcome these barriers by facilitating the deployment of SMRs and ensuring a safe expansion of nuclear capabilities.

As the world increasingly turns to nuclear solutions to meet clean energy demands, ongoing international collaboration and innovation are vital for realizing the full potential of nuclear energy in a sustainable and secure manner.